Special Needs & Technology

Our world is changing. Society is becoming increasingly globalized. The United States alone is home to hundreds of cultures and languages. It is estimated that there are more than 5.5 million students enrolled in U.S. schools whose first language is not English (Swanson, Orosco, & Lussier, 2012). I personally serve over 100 of these students in grades K-5 as the English Language Learning teacher at Parkside Elementary. I am finishing up my first year teaching and I love my job! I am continuing to learn more about my students, their families, and their cultures. I have long been intrigued by the variety of cultural and linguistic differences present in the United States and across the globe, and am now interested in finding out more about second language acquisition. I am most interested in the cognitive processes involved with second language acquisition and how this knowledge can help me make well-informed instructional decisions for my students.

Secondary language acquisition is a multi-faceted learning process involving working memory, verbal and phonological short-term memory, as well as executive functions. Working memory helps to process ongoing language activities, particularly sentence comprehension and vocabulary, and is responsible for attention and focus (Engel de Abreu, Gathercole, & Martin, 2011). An additional component to second language acquisition, short-term memory, is also connected to vocabulary knowledge and syntactic comprehension (Engel de Abreu, et al., 2011). According to Engel de Abreu et al. (2011), verbal short-term memory “is the driving force behind both native and foreign vocabulary acquisition, by supporting the formation of stable phonological representations of new words in long-term memory” (p.12). In particular, vocabulary identification (Swanson, Orosco, & Lussier, 2012) and storage  in long-term memory is dependent on the quality of the short-term memory, which in turn is affected by attention and focus from working memory (Engel de Abreu, et al., 2011). In addition, being able to identify, duplicate, and manipulate sounds is a skill needed for any language learning. Increased phonological short-term memory and phonological awareness in the student’s primary language can contribute to secondary language reading and vocabulary learning (Engel de Abreu & Gathercole, 2012). Knowledge of the sound structure of one language  can potentially give students a boost when learning a second language instead of starting from scratch. The final component to secondary language learning is executive processing which is linked to helping students focus on relevant aspects of the new language while suppressing interference from the primary language (Engel de Abreu & Gathercole, 2012). Research from Engel de Abreu and Gathercole (2012) suggests that “children with better executive processes may have an advantage in second language learning” (p. 975) as they must manage several language systems simultaneously. These components of memory work together to help students acquire the secondary language needed for their education.

My students need English to learn concepts and ideas to be successful in school. After reviewing the literature, it is clear that dynamic cognitive processes are at work when learning a second language. Knowledge of how these processes work can help inform my instructional decisions as a teacher. Understanding that secondary language acquisition has its roots in memory and cognitive functions, I found three major ideas from the literature that can influence my decision-making as a language teacher:

• Working memory - I can provide learning opportunities that allow my students to practice focusing and paying attention to what is currently happening.
• Short-term to long-term memory - I can create meaningful language experiences for my students that can help important concepts transition from short-term to long-term memory. 
• Executive functions - I can encourage my students to take ownership of their learning by being self-aware, reflective of their actions, and to think about their thinking (metacognition). It is also important to include students in decision-making and goal-setting.

Many of these concepts are already present in some form in my classroom, but I went searching for new technology tools that I can use with my students to further improve their memory and cognitive functions. Online digital gaming is a source of interest and motivation for many students, and can potentially improve memory and attention. I found a great online resource called Learning Works for Kids. This is digital game and app guide for students that need to practice specific skills or have particular learning concerns. Parents, teachers, or students can search for games on a variety of platforms to support an array of cognitive functions including working memory, focus, organization, planning, and self-awareness. There are also online sites that claim to boost memory and thinking skills such as Jungle Memory, Lumosity, and Happy Neuron but unfortunately these sites have little sound scientific research to support their claims. More promising is a working memory program from Pearson called Cogmed that is backed by mixed research and is used by psychologists to improve memory and attention. According to my readings, working memory, short-term memory and executive functions are major components of secondary language acquisition. If I can help my students increase their skills in these areas, it would be reasonable to assume that their language abilities would also increase. The evidence is not clear whether there is a direct connection between these two concepts, but it is an interesting idea that I would like to further explore with my students for the following year.

Online Games & Other Resources

Learning Works for Kids http://learningworksforkids.com/

What is working memory? http://vimeo.com/31461996

Classic Simon https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.neilneil.android.games.simonclassic&hl=en

Civilizations Wars http://armorgames.com/play/5151/civilizations-wars

Short Term Memory Checker http://neutralx0.net/home/mini04.html

Sequence Memory Game
http://www.kidsmathgamesonline.com/memory/sequencememory.html

Jungle Memory http://junglememory.com/

Lumosity http://www.lumosity.com/

Happy Neuron http://www.happyneuron-corp.com/en

Cogmed http://www.cogmed.com/


References

Engel, d. A., & Gathercole, S. E. (2012). Executive and phonological processes in second-language acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(4), 974-986. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/docview/1013918443/fulltext/13E612BBFCD77AD0449/1?accountid=12598


Engel de Abreu, P., Gathercole, S. E., & Martin, R. (2011). Disentangling the relationship between working memory and language: The roles of short-term storage and cognitive control. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(5), 569-574. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/2047429/Disentangling_the_relationship_between_working_memory_and_language_The_roles_of_short-term_storage_and_cognitive_control


Swanson, H. L., Orosco, M. J., & Lussier, C. M. (2012). Cognition and literacy in english language learners at risk for reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 302-320. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/docview/907033113/fulltextPDF?accountid=12598